The Beef Behind Meat Substitutes

 

The Beef Behind
Meat Substitutes
July 1995 -- Design Elements

By: Lynn Kuntz
Associate Editor*
*(Editor since August 1996)

    Has meatless gone mainstream? Instead of turning up their noses at soy burgers, college students demand them. The White House serves veggie burgers. Trendy and not-so-trendy eateries have meat alternatives on the menu. Even McDonald's is rumored to be considering meatless burgers.   Celebrities plug vegetarian products. Food companies manufacture and market these products. The local grocery store stocks them in the freezer case. The current proliferation of meat substitutes on the market indicates that humans may not be quite the carnivores we once thought.   While estimates now place the number of vegetarians in this country between 12 million and 13 million, this is not necessarily the group that has piqued the interest of those companies marketing more traditional fare.   "I think part-time vegetarianism will continue to grow and probably at a fairly high rate," observes Marianne Gillette, marketing manager, savory, McCormick & Co., Hunt Valley, MD. "Not because people want to avoid meat for the same ethical principles that classically motivate vegetarians, but because the food is lighter and people perceive it as healthier. It's an economical way to eat. There are many reasons that have little to do with ethics or culture or religion."   Designing meat substitutes involves countless options: marketing, nutritional and, of course, technical. These considerations all greatly influence the formulation process. The market, the market  The first step of the development process is to identify the target consumer group or groups. The three major markets include vegetarians, those looking for a healthier alterntive to meat, and those looking for a low-cost protein source. Each of these groups may restrict the ingredient choices. Also, the underlying reasons each has for buying these products often result in different flnished product targets.   Vegetarians are not simply one group that avoids eating meat and animal products. They range from those who limit certain animal products because of religious dietary restrictions to those that eschew meat to those that eat only certain products of vegetable origin. For example, "fruitarians" believe it is unethical to eat anything that destroys a living organism or interrupts the process of life -- whether animal or vegetable, including seeds and nuts. While that is a noble sentiment it would not be a very sound one from a product development strategy. Chances are, this group does not rush out to buy processed foods either.   If we exclude some of the more extreme options, those termed vegetarians still display a wide range of preferences. Certain meats, seafood, cheese and other dairy products, and eggs may or may not turn up on the list of forbidden foods. In terms of ingredients, this can mean no gelatin, whey or dairy proteins, egg albumen, or flavors derived from the same animal sources.   An individual vegetarian's particular stance reflects philosophical or ethical issues such as the ethical treatment of animals or the global effects of the inefficiency of meat production. Typically, however, food companies target the vegans (pronounced vee-gans), or those who avoid all animal products, including dairy products and eggs.   On the other hand, those who eat some vegetarian meals for health reasons have a different agenda. The ingredients used for this audience must fit under the "good-for-you" umbrella. Cholesterol, fat level, calories, salt and even issues like "artificial" ingredients, hormones, glutamate or food allergies crop up. The goal of this group is to cut the consumption of these types of substances. Another nutritional goal may be to increase the consumption of complex carbohydrates and other nutrients that are contained in vegetables but are missing in meat. Often these consumers only adhere to part-time vegetarianism. Using animal-derived products like milk solids, egg whites or beef flavoring does not send up any red flags for many, since they often ordinarily consume them.   "Eighty percent of our customers are not vegetarians," asserts Paul Winter, CEO, Wholesome and Hearty Foods, Portland, OR. "They are just cutting down on red meat. We're glad. It's a huge category."   The final group consists of people looking for cheaper protein sources. Again, varying objectives exist. Rising meat prices in the 1970s prompted many to look for products that would extend meat -- something that could effectively turn one pound of hamburger into a pound and a quarter or more. Currently, since belt-tightening seems to be the order of the day, this may again gain popularity.   However, from a global perspective, many people do not have access to that pound of hamburger. In these situations a high-protein meat substitute becomes a nutritional necessity. Additionally vegetable-based meat substitutes provide an efficient method of obtaining protein from limited cultivated land. As the world population increases and food companies become more involved in globalization, nutritional factors become more crucial. Impersonation or alternative  At first glance, the term meat substitute gives a clear focus. We think of a food product designed to replace meat. However, does this mean nutritionally, functionally (a product that serves as a main course), or are we looking for a product that looks, tastes and otherwise mimics the qualities of a particular meat product? The answer to this question determines the direction of the development effort.   There are basically three options. Meat analogs consist of those products that are primarily of vegetable origin but are meant to imitate meat or meat-based products. Meatless dishes are generally traditional foods, often based on dishes containing pasta or rice. Meat alternatives consist of vegetable products designed to function like meat but organoleptically have little in common with it, often taking the form of what is colloquially called a "veggie burger."   "Some vegetarians don't want their products to taste like meat," says Gillette. "They are so appalled at the concept of eating an animal that they don't want food to taste like lamb or beef. They just want something that tastes good that is a protein source."   With a meatless entree, unless it uses some sort of meat analog as an ingredient, the design issues mirror those seen in traditional processed food products. The biggest difference, and to many processors the biggest advantage, is that they will not fall under the jurisdiction of the USDA. Some traditional foods even qualify for this category: macaroni and cheese, pasta with mushroom sauce, beans and rice, and so on. Their formulation may be slightly more complex from a nutritional -- mainly protein -- standpoint, but those issues come up with any meatless product.   On the other hand, meat analogs and, to a lesser degree, meat alternatives -- can generate a few more developmental headaches on the road to an acceptable product. They share some of the same issues. Health and nutrition concerns, flavor and texture all must meet targets without the use of specific ingredients of animal origin. The meat analog designer has the added burden of trying to create a product that passes for something it is not.   "A ground-meat analog technically may not be easier to do," notes Jack Painter, vice president, marketing, protein specialties division, Archer Daniels Midland (ADM), Decatur, IL. "The finished product may be more recognizable to the consumer because it's been around longer. In developing a T-bone steak analog, it's very difficult to replicate things like marbling. Whereas burgers -- everything from wheat burgers to soy burgers to grain burgers have been around for a number of years. They're not new. You are just trying to improve on what was previously done." The protein point  "One of the important considerations in developing a meat analog is that it should have many of the same qualities of the product it is replacing. It should be nutritionally equivalent, if not better," advises Cheryl Borders, manager of specialty products development at ADM. "Here in the United States, we consume more than enough protein. But when you look outside the U.S., many people are not quite as fortunate. These meat analoas have applications there, as well."   Depending on the source of the figures, the average American ingests about 100 grams of protein daily -- approximately two to four times more protein than the body requires. The Food and Agriculture Organization recommends that a minimum of 7% of calories consumed should consist of protein. That's 28 grams per day on a 2,000-calorie-per-day diet. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration uses 50 grams of protein in a 2,000-calorie-per-day diet as the recommended Daily Value. Children, as well as pregnant and nursing women, have higher protein requirements than the rest of the population.   Even vegetarians eating a balanced diet easily average about 60 grams of protein per day. Additionally, vegetarians on the whole tend to be more nutritionally knowledgeable than the average consumer. Strict attention to protein for meat substitutes used in this country may not be as much a driving factor as it would be for products destined for other markets. Yet if the goal is to design a nutritionally sound product, protein content and quality influence the formulation.   One of the biggest advantages of excess protein consumption is that we rarely need to concern ourselves with actively seeking out and consuming certain amino acids. When protein sources in the diet are restricted, the chance of ingesting too little of the correct amino acid balance grows. As total food consumption -- as well as the available variety -- diminishes, this concern increases significantly.   Humans require protein to provide the amino acids necessary for cellular structure, metabolism and other functional reactions fundamental to life. We can manufacture some of the amino acids from any protein source, but there are eight "essential" amino acids that the body cannot produce. These are lysine, tryptophan, leucine, isoleucine, valine, threonine, methionine, cystine, and the aromatic amino acids. In addition, children require histadine.   Different protein sources often lack sufficient quantities of certain amino acids. Meats, as well as eggs and dairy products, generally contain a relatively high, balanced quantity of these amino acids, while many vegetables and fruits do not. Soybeans, though, are a notable exception.   Consuming insufficient amounts of any of the essential amino acids can decrease the amount of other amino acids absorbed -- thus, the concept of "balanced" proteins. However, recent studies have modified the way the nutritional value of food proteins is measured. Formerly, protein quality was measured by the amino acid score, or PER values, which used animal studies to determine protein digestibility. Proteins are now more accurately evaluated by the Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS), a method based on human amino acid needs and the digestibility of the protein. These adjusted values give soy protein isolate, a common vegetable protein ingredient, the same quality score as beef. Egg white and casein are considered the most nutritionally complete proteins via this method.   If protein level and quality are key attributes in the finished product, it makes sense to formulate with a high quality protein such as soy. Another route may be to use the same concept to which vegetarians adhere: protein complementation. In this approach, ingredients lacking in certain amino acids are combined with those that contain high levels of the deficient amino acids.   The human digestive system does not seem to care whether the proper amino acids are present in a single protein. The same level of protein absorption occurs whether the amino acid balance comes from a specific ingredient, a single food product made with a variety of ingredients, or an entire meal as long as it is digested in the same time period. This opens up more formulation possibilities than a meat substitute made primarily of soy products.   "Because grains are typically deficient in lysine, we have our supplier add it to the wheat gluten used in our Garden Dogs and Garden Chicken so they come up to the same quality as meat," notes Winter. "We do it because schools have certain regulations and certain nutritional numbers they must meet, not because we have any concerns about insufficient protein in the diet. In general, our products are designed as center of the plate, so you would be eating them with other things. We're not looking at supplementation as a rule."   In general, legumes such as beans and peas are deficient in tryptophan and the sulfur-containing amino acids. Nuts and grains tend to lack isoleucine and lysine. Most vegetables contain low levels of the sulfur-containing amino acids and many also do not supply sufficient isoleucine. If dairy or egg proteins are an option, they may serve to round out the amino acid profile.   Besides protein, there are other nutrients that should be considered if nutritional equivalence to meat is a concern -- especially vitamin B12 and iron. In a typical diet, meat supplies a significant percentage of these two nutrients. Obtaining the required levels may be difficult using conventional ingredients, so fortification may be necessary to boost the amount in the finished product. Making it meatless  Once marketing defines a target product, ingredient selection can begin. One of the most common ingredients used in making these types of products is soy, which furnishes a relatively high level of well-balanced protein. Soy also has been linked to a number of health benefits, including reduction of cholesterol. In addition to the nutritional advantages, soy proteins act as binders, emulsifiers and texturizers.   "If you look at it from a cost standpoint, soy protein competes very well with other sources of protein," says Painter "Functionally we think it's the best performer. We've developed soy protein products with vastly improved taste. One of the thinas we're up against is the old school lunch soy burger image -- those made with the old TVP product. Because meat prices were so high, some manufacturers figured if they could extend the meat by 20% or 30%, they could extend it by 100% and reduce the cost even further. But they lost sight of the fact that by doing that it nug t not taste very good. It's taken 20 or 30 years to offset that negative image."   Soy protein ingredients are made by extracting certain levels of sugars and other soluble carbohydrates from defatted soy. They can be classified into three categories: soy proteins, soy concentrates and soy isolates. Soy protein contains about 50% protein. Use of a cooking extrusion process creates textured vegetable protein, the familiar meat imitator. Soy concentrate contains about 70% protein. Soy isolate is the most concentrated soy protein ingredient, with about 90% protein. Because the unpleasant "beany" taste is associated with the carbohydrate fraction, the more protein, the less sugar and carbohydrates, and, therefore, the lower the flavor impact.   The selection of a particular soy protein ingredient depends on several factors: texture, water-binding, requirements, protein content, and even the fiber content. Soy concentrates retain remnants from the soybean hull, giving them an inherent fiber content and reducing the need to add an additional source of fiber in the formulation.   "With meat analogs -- those products formulated to resemble meat -- you need a protein that produces a similar texture to meat, a textured product," explains Borders. "You want to look for ingredients that will help retain moisture and added fat. For that you would use an isolate or perhaps one of the powdered concentrates."   Soy concentrates hold approximately three times their weight in water. The soy isolates hold about four times their weight. Obviously, hydration is an important function of a major ingredient used for meat substitutes. Many of these products are positioned as healthful alternatives to meat, meaning they are low in fat. When the fat content falls, water must provide the needed lubricity and mouthfeel.   Soy protein often helps bind the entire product together. Various isolates can have differing gel strengths. Creating more of a meat-like texture would require a combination of a textured and an isolate type.   Other types of protein are available to use in meat analogs. Wheat, corn, rice and even such exotic protein sources as mung beans help increase the protein of meatless products. To date, the one that has garnered the most success in replicating the texture of meat is wheat gluten. Some wheat gluten ingredients specifically designed for the vegetarian market have a very bland flavor and very light color. By working with a proprietary process, one supplier has come up with a striated product that closely resembles the fibrous structure of muscle meats.   "Our chicken analog, Garden Chicken, is the closest thing to chicken that isn't chicken in the world," claims Winter "It was seven years in the making. Ultimately, the process was stumbled on by accident. The gluten-based products end up being more meat-like. The hot dog product we have developed uses gluten, and it is firm and has a good bite. We initially used a brown rice sweetener as the sugar, but we found it softened the product too much. So we switched to an organic cane sugar that retains all the minerals -- I like to use whole foods -- and that made all the difference in the world."   Nutritionally, soy protein is superior to wheat protein. If nutritional equivalency is a prime goal, a product made only with wheat protein may not meet that objective. Some people exhibit an allergic reaction to wheat gluten, so that also may restrict its usage.   "Rice protein has been used for a number of meatless products, both as a protein source and as a functional ingredient, especially as a binder," says LaDonna Fay, sales and marketing, Zumbro Inc., Hayfield, MN. "(Rice proteins) do not make up a large portion of the total formula, but used at the appropriate levels, they improve the product texture. I'm not aware that anyone is currently using rice protein solely for a protein source."   For the non-analog products, theoretically anything goes as long as it is relatively nutritious, meets the vegetarian standards, and tastes good. Depending on the flavor and texture profile required, either grains or vegetables or a combination of the two make up the basis for the product. Grains and many vegetables can give the product an appealing, but definitely non-meat flavor and texture. From a processing standpoint, the grains involve more preparation in terms of cooking than a powdered protein isolate or similar ingredient.   Interestingly, one of the vegetable ingredients used in significant quantities is mushroom. While it contains only a fairly low level of protein (about 3%), unlike other vegetables it appears to be high in sulfur-containing amino acids. Additionally, mushrooms contain relatively high levels of naturally occurring glutamates, providing flavor enhancement without the addition of monosodium glutamate or hydrolyzed vegetable protein.   "When I started this business about 10 years ago, I thought that a lot of the meat analogs on the market fell short in terms of flavor and texture," explains Winter. "In the early days, they were not even all that healthy; they were high in fat and high in sodium so they would taste good. I decided to start with my favorite ingredients -- mushrooms, onions and brown rice -- instead of soy and came up with an entirely different texture and taste for a meatless burger."   Most of these products require some type of binding agent to keep them in a homogeneous mass. The same types of ingredients that are used as binders in other products can be used in meat substitutes as long as they meet the necessary origin criteria. Wheat gluten is very effective in this role, according to Borders. Gums, pectins, and the different starches (including potato and tapioca) work well, depending on the specific application and process requirements. Egg white acts as an excellent binding agent, but is not appropriate for inclusion in a vegan product. Combinations of various ingredients often give the best effect.   If emulsification is required, a product with soluble protein can promote that effect. The selection also depends on what will appear on the ingredient declaration; most of the finished products require something label-friendly for the target consumer. The effect on the texture also drives selection.   The technique used to process the product affects the selection of binding agents, too. Some require precooking to provide the structure that holds the product together. The product needs something that will remain stable through the conditions of the particular process to which it will be subjected. A meat substitute destined for retort requires the use of a binder that will not break down under high-heat conditions.   Usually the process of making these types of products mirrors those used for comparable meat products. For example, the higher the fat content, the more likely it is that stickiness will increase to the point where it adversely affects processing at the forming stage. Reducing the process temperature helps control this problem. Most manufacturers report that working with a vegetarian version is easier than working with meat.   "You certainly don't have to trim the fat off," points out Borders. "Meat applications use salt as a functional 'ingredient to solubilize proteins. That's something that we don't necessarily have to do." In good taste  "No matter what else you are doing, taste will be the No. 1 criterion of any of these discussions," says Painter. "If the product doesn't taste good, you might get trial initially, but consumers certainly won't come back for more."   Again, the first consideration is whether or not the product is supposed to taste like meat. Many of the better meat flavors contain some meat or are derived from meat sources. Obviously, these would not work for a vegetarian product, but would be appropriate for something geared toward the average consumer. However, many meat flavors are based on vegetable sources, such as hydrolyzed vegetable protein. Reaction flavors, those made using a combination of protein and carbohydrates, also create a browned, meat-like flavor.   "If we put the precursors in before retorting and then process the whole mix, we can produce a really nice meat flavor at the end," says Gillette. "It's the same flavor that you'd have by putting a reaction flavor in at the beginning, but this way it reacts during the process. It relies on the manufacturer's process to develop the flavor. It's a pretty robust reaction."   Since meat proteins are often not an option and HVP can have labeling repercussions, another choice is to use spices, especially those associated with specific meats.   "For example, if you use very low levels of celery you can emulate chicken," recommends Gillette. "A little clove can emulate ham. A little sage for turkey, and a little onion and garlic gives beef. We have also found that ground spices don't work as well as some of the spice altematives. We're not sure why; maybe the flavors are more available in the spice alternatives. It could be a function of availability to the tongue. We often use the water soluble version of an oil or oleoresin. These may work better because of the water solubility in terms of the meat protein substitutes."   Using the less concentrated soy proteins results in a distinctive, undesirable flavor contributed by the carbohydrates present. They can give a strong, lingering aftertaste. According to Gillette, the only real way to get around that flavor is by over-flavoring the product so that the flavor system lingers longer than the soy. Flavors such as spices or grilled flavors can cut off the latent, bitter green notes.   One of the common challenges in flavoring these products is that they tend to be low in fat, which brings up familiar flavoring issues. The fat is not present to deliver the flavor. Replacing animal fat with vegetable fats eliminates the flavor notes associated with the animal sources. Vegetable fats may not carry added flavors as well as an animal fat.   Meatless cuisine, once the province of the moonbeam contingent, has gained a new respectability, giving fertile ground for new product development. While a number of products have been on the market for years, there seems to be a plethora of new products, ingredients and processes yet to be tried.   "The burger side of the business is just a small part of it," says Painter. "I don't think you're going to see this category go away. We are looking at things other than meat analogs, soy milk products, dry-type dinners, textured soy. We plan to move this business forward over the next several years. You hear that low-fat eating is just a fad, but I don't think so; healthy living and healthy eating are here to stay. Some people have walked away from red meat, and they won't be coming back. As other companies see the success of these products, more and more are going to get into the business, particularly on a worldwide basis." Back to top