Asian Ethnic
December 1999 -- Cover Story

By: Susheela Uhl
Contributing Editor

  Asian cuisines are no longer limited to the "Far East." Rather, Asian foods, ingredients and preparation styles are fast becoming an integral part of American life, with Asian foods representing the fastest-growing cuisine category. According to statistics from the U.S. Census Bureau's Census of Retail Trade and the Washington, D.C.-based National Restaurant Association, the 22,650 Asian restaurants in the United States rack up an impressive $5.3 billion in sales.

Asian appeal

  One reason Asian cuisines are so popular is the dramatic growth in the Asian-American population. Asian Americans are one of the fastest-growing minority populations in the United States, increasing more than 20% in the 1990s. The Asian population is also becoming more diverse, with growing numbers of Indians, Thais and Vietnamese joining the established Chinese, Japanese and Korean communities.

  Another reason Asian foods are popular is simply that they taste good. The abundance and variety of Asian spices and other flavorings create a "fresh" taste found in no other cuisine. Consumers are comfortable with many of Asian foods' flavors and ingredients, such as roasted garlic, mint and teriyaki sauce. There are also stronger, more exotic flavors such as sambals, curry powders and toasted coriander for the adventurous consumers. Authentic Asian ingredients and cooking styles provide the intense flavors and textures, visual appeal and variety that consumers want.

  The trend toward a healthy lifestyle is also steering Asian foods to the forefront. Americans are reducing their fat intake, but at the same time are looking for taste, appearance and variety. Asian cuisines have strong flavor profiles derived from spices, seasonings and nutritious ingredients such as fish, fruits, leafy vegetables, grains and legumes.

  The Asian way of eating is also fueling the growing demand for "foods used as medicine." Consumers perceive Asian spices, lentils and soy products, which contain phytochemicals and other important compounds, as natural methods for curing ailments and preventing disease. Americans are also learning about traditional Chinese and Indian Ayurvedic medicine as natural ways of creating body wellness.

  Egg rolls, fried rice, wontons, sushis and stir-fries from Asia are no longer considered strictly ethnic, but are becoming mainstream foods. Ginger, soy sauce, sesame oil and other once "exotic" ingredients turn up in many American kitchens alongside black pepper and ketchup.

  North Americans are combining Asian food concepts, including ingredients, cooking techniques and presentation styles, with traditional American foods to create new American foods, such as Pan Asian, Asian Latino, New Californian and Pacific Rim.

  In order to tap into the growing market for authentic and cross-cultural Asian cuisines, food product designers must learn about the various types of Asian foods. However, there's no simple way to define foods from the largest, most diverse continent on earth. The best way to begin understanding Asian foods in all their diversity is to appreciate three basic principals relevant to Asian cooking: first, that the Asian philosophy of preparing and presenting foods differs from that in the West; second, that the culture, history and religions of each region affect their foods; and third, that Asian countries' unique ingredients characterize their cuisines.

Philosophy of Asian cuisines

  Asian concepts of meals and food preparation differ from North American and European-style cooking in several basic ways. In traditional western meals, there is a tendency to segregate tastes. Potatoes have one distinct flavor, meats another type of flavor, and sweet flavors are left for dessert. In contrast, Asians cuisines, including Chinese, Indian and Southeast Asian, create balance and harmony in a meal by combining tastes and textures, often within a single dish.

  For example, Indian cooking categorizes foods into six tastes - sweet, sour, salty, spicy, bitter and astringent. The proper, well-balanced Indian meal contains all six tastes. This principle explains the complex spice combinations and depth of flavor in Indian foods. Similarly, in Chinese cooking, there are also six different tastes - sweet, salty, bitter, sour, spicy and umami. The proper balance of these different flavors with appropriate textures and colors creates good taste in Chinese cooking.

  Asian cooking principles go beyond the balancing of tastes. Foods can be hot, cold, moist, dry, heavy or light. Every meal should be well-balanced between these sensations to promote digestion and well-being.

  Asian cooking and presentation techniques are designed to carry out this philosophy of eating. For example, Asian foods redefine the concept of an entree. In traditional western meals, the entree typically consists of a large piece of dry, unseasoned or lightly seasoned meat or fish. In contrast, Asian meals feature smaller servings of seasoned, sauced and thinly cut pieces of meat or fish.

  Side dishes and condiments contribute to the overall flavor and texture of a meal. The hot, sour, and crunchy flavors of side dishes and condiments, whether chutneys, curries, sambals or dals, enhance and provide balance to the overall flavor and texture of the main entree.

  In Southeast Asian cuisines, the main entree and side dishes sometimes blend together to form a one-pot or one-dish meal. A one-pot meal may be a stew, soup, sauced noodles, or fried rice containing onions, tofu, chiles, leftover meat, vegetables, or anything available in the pantry, served with a spicy condiment. However, the addition of these ingredients is not simply random. They are chosen and added to create a balanced "system" of taste and texture.

  Condiments are an integral part of Asian meals, whether teriyaki, sambal trassi, mango pickle or kochujang. They can be pungent, hot, sour, sweet or umami, perking up a dish and providing added appeal to individual tastes on a meal table. One of the most notable aspects of Thai and Vietnamese cooking is the emphasis on condiments based on fish sauce, garlic, tamarind juice, herbs and chile peppers.

  Artfully presented garnishes and toppings also provide a final note of contrasting texture, flavor and color. Malaysian and Indonesian seasoned rices and noodles are never served without nutty roasted peanuts, caramelized crispy shallots or crunchy bean sprouts. Fresh herbs are important Southeast Asian garnishes, and provide fresh aromas and many textural variations.

  Preparation techniques such as steaming, smoking, tarkaring or tumising of foods and spice pastes provide distinct flavors, colors and textures to foods. When smoked, pickled, or toasted, spices such as chile peppers, coriander seeds and sesame seeds give different colors, flavors and textures. Steaming or grilling meats or rice in pandan or papaya leaves gives unique flavors and visual appeal.

  In Asian cuisines, texture is an important element, especially in vegetable entrees. Consumers perceive crispy, crunchy vegetables as fresh and natural. In traditional American cooking, vegetables are often boiled soft, and can be unappetizing. In contrast, Cantonese steaming and stir-frying techniques that use very light seasonings bring out the vegetables' fresh colors, flavors and textures.

  Appearance is also an important factor in Asian cooking. Colorful sculptured fruits, chiles, flowers and vegetables sit on a backdrop of rice, noodles, grilled chicken and fish, adding visual pizzazz to plates.

Regional preferences

  Even though general principles apply to all Asian cuisines, certain ingredients and cooking styles vary from region to region. Some ingredients such as ginger, soy sauce, fish sauce, garlic, star anise or curry may have mass appeal for all Asians, but each region or culture has specific preferences. Asians come from many ethnic backgrounds - Indian, Chinese, Japanese, Thai or Vietnamese. There are also differences in flavor profiles within each region. For example, in Southeast Asia, Malaysian foods are distinct from Thai or Vietnamese foods. Even within Malaysia, flavor differences occur because of its diverse cultures. The Malay foods are different from the Chinese, Indian or Nonya foods.

  Religion adds to the variety and unique flavor differences found in Asian foods. Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists, Christians and Jews have specific preferences and prohibitions for ingredients. Rice wine, widely used in Chinese and Japanese cooking, is not a halal item, so predominantly Muslim regions, such as Malaysia, Indonesia or Pakistan, do not use it in their cooking. Beef is popular in Korea, China and Japan, but is taboo for Hindus, so is not eaten in most regions of India except where Muslims and Christians predominate. Mutton and lamb are commonly eaten by Hindus and Muslims of Pakistan, India and Southeast Asia, while pork is commonly eaten by Chinese, but not by Muslims or Jews.

  South Asia. Pakistani foods have Arabic, Iranian, Turkish, North Indian and Afghan influences. They are noted for their festive-style biryanis (rice-based dishes with various meats or vegetables), wheat-based breads called naan, mutton and lamb kebabs. Pork and alcohol are rarely consumed because of Pakistan's Muslim population.

  Nepal and Tibet are influenced by Chinese, Indian and European cuisine, using plenty of dried and fermented foods derived from buffalo meat, mutton, vegetables, fish, fruits and legumes. Corn, rice, millet and wheat are also eaten, along with soups, chutneys and dumplings.

  Bangladesh, formerly called East Pakistan, has foods and flavors similar to those found in India and Pakistan. Since the population is mostly Muslim, pork is prohibited. Rice, fish, legumes, chutneys and vegetables flavored with mustard, poppy seeds and nigella are popular foods.

  Because India is influenced by many cultures and religions, Indian foods have tremendous variety. The major religious influences are Hinduism, Islamism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, and Parsiism, which came to India from Persia, or what is now Iran. Indian cuisines have great aromas and in-depth taste profiles, which are derived from a complex combination of spices and preparation techniques for spices. Rice and wheat are popular ingredients. Other commonly used ingredients are legumes, vegetables, fruits, nuts, fish, mutton, lamb, dairy products, coconut and numerous spices. In the north, rotis (unleavened, griddle-baked breads), parathas (whole-wheat, griddle-fried breads) and creamy curries are popular. The south has fiery, coconut-based curries and sour dosas. In the east, stir-fried vegetables and mustard-based chutneys predominate, while the west has hot sour curries and aromatic biryanis.

  Sri Lankan cooking is influenced by the cuisines of the Tamils, Dutch, Portuguese, Arabs, Malaysians and British. It features fiery curries, fermented-rice breads, fish, beef and chicken. Quite similar to South Indian cuisine, it also makes liberal use of roasted spices, hot chiles, coconut milk, kari leaf, tamarind, jackfruit and mangoes.

  Southeast Asia. Southeast Asian countries, in close proximity to each other, make use of similar spices, fruits and vegetables. Ginger, chile peppers, fish, shrimp paste, tubers, leafy greens, noodles and legumes are widely used in all regions, but each community prepares these commonly enjoyed ingredients differently, thus creating unique variations.

  Blending contrasting tastes and textures for successful flavor release is typical of a Southeast Asian meal. These cuisines also have a tremendous variety of ingredients and cooking techniques. Many cultures have influenced Southeast Asia - the Malays with their pungent shrimp pastes, sambals and coconut milk; the Indians with curries, fenugreek, and dals; the Chinese with soy sauce and tofu; the Spanish with tomatoes, beans and adobos; the Portuguese with vinegar and mustard seed; and the Arabs with kebabs, breads and cinnamon.

  In Thailand, flavors vary depending on the region. Mild flavors predominate in the north; fiery hot tastes in the north east; spicy curries in the south; and hybrid flavors in the central regions. Thai foods are influenced by soups and noodles from China, curries from India and Sri Lanka, and satays and hot coconut sauces from north Malaysia.

  North Vietnam has more Chinese-type flavors, including soy sauce, ginger and black pepper. The south and central regions are influenced by Cambodia and Thailand, so fish sauce, chiles, fruits and curries predominate.

  Indonesian flavor varies widely among the different islands, with influences from Malaysia, Singapore and the Arab world. Most islands have a Muslim background, except for Bali, which has a Hindu influence. Sumatra has fiery hot rendangs and spicy root vegetables, while Java has stir-fried noodles and hot salads, and Bali has pungent curries and fish dishes.

  Malaysia and Singapore have similar flavors, with pungent Malay sambals and fish, Chinese stir-fried noodles, Nonya chile-based laksas, Indian curries and dals, and European cutlets and salads.

  Cambodian (Kampuchean) foods show a strong Chinese influence, with rice, fish, peanuts, ginger and black and white peppers as essential ingredients. Laotian foods are similar to Cambodian foods, and also have Chinese origins, with sticky rice, beans, tubers, pork, chicken, chiles, coriander, mint, coconut milk, shrimp and fish sauce being the important ingredients. Philippine foods have Malay, Chinese, Spanish and North American flavors, featuring marinades of pungent fish pastes, coconut, adobos and fruit juices. Myanmar (Burma) is influenced by neighboring India, China, Cambodia and Thailand. Rice, noodles, duck, chicken and fish curries, fermented fish pastes, garlic, turmeric, tomatoes and onions are popular.

  East Asia. Japanese and Chinese foods are more familiar to North Americans than the foods of many Asian cuisines. Chinese foods have some Indian, Japanese and Mongolian influences, with flavors and staples varying depending on the region. In south China, people eat mainly rice or noodles, while the northerners eat wheat, millet and sorghum. The most popular meats are pork, beef and lamb, the latter two being preferred by the Muslims. Vegetables are eaten in abundance.

  The regional cooking of China is also becoming better known in the United States. Cantonese foods have little seasoning and, like French cuisine, rely on the subtle juices of ingredients and preparation techniques. Seasonings include soy sauce, ginger, garlic and oyster sauce. Beijing (Peking) cuisine uses pancakes, steamed buns, stir-fried or steamed dishes, pickled vegetables, tofu, scallions, and roasted or barbecued pork and lamb. Shanghai cuisine on the east coast has sweeter flavors and uses plenty of noodles, sesame, fish, dark-red sauces, sesame oil and black-bean sauce. Szechwan and Hunan cuisines in the west are hotter, with chile peppers, preserved vegetables, fagara and clove.

  Korean foods show the influence of neighboring Japan and China. Rice is the staple food, with noodles, seaweeds, pickled vegetables, pork and kimchees also prevalent. Essential flavorings include sesame, ginger root, ginseng, ginkgo nuts, garlic, soy sauce, fish sauce and chile peppers. The south has spicier and saltier flavor profiles than the north. A typical Korean meal, called panchan, consists of steamed white rice with side dishes of kimchi, soup, spinach namul, toasted seaweed, pickled vegetables, meat or pickled seafood.

  Japanese foods are characterized by simplicity and aesthetic appeal. Influenced by China and Korea, these foods delight the senses and are based on cooking techniques using fresh ingredients. The staple is glutinous rice, with a variety of noodles, fish and other seafood, pickled vegetables, mushrooms, seaweeds, soy sauce, wasabi, sansho (a seasoning made from the berries of the prickly ash tree), ginger, miso, mirin and sesame. Japanese meals are categorized by ingredient preparation, not by the basic ingredients. Foods are classified as grilled, steamed, simmered, deep-fried or vinegared. Japanese meal presentation combines these different cooking techniques to create balanced flavors, textures and colors.

Asian ingredients

  Rice, noodles, beans and breads are the staple ingredients of Asian cuisines. Seafood is an important item in most Asian meals, and is also an essential flavoring. While meats and dairy play a role in Asian foods, their flavors are characterized by spices, seasonings and other ingredients. Asian foods are aromatic with fresh, leafy spices (mint, basil, kaffir lime leaf, kari leaf); peppery (with cayenne pepper, black pepper and ginger); savory (with coriander, cinnamon and cumin); nutty (with almonds, candlenuts and walnuts); and fruity (with kalamansi, mango and plums).

  Rice provides 80% of the daily calorie intake for Asians. In Malaysia and Indonesia, the word nasi means cooked rice, but nasi is also the word for meal. Many Asians feel that rice nourishes both body and soul. Without rice, food is only a snack, and not a true meal. Thus, rice is the centerpiece of every Asian meal, accompanied by a variety of crunchy vegetables, pungent condiments and aromatic curries. Rice can also be a comfort food - rice porridge with shredded chicken and pickled vegetables, called congee, is often taken when sick.

  Basmati, the most fragrant rice, is very popular in India, Pakistan and Southeast Asia. It has a distinct flavor and al dente texture after cooking, and contains eight to 10 times the amount of 2-acetyl 1-pyrroline - the compound that produces the distinctive fragrance - that's present in other rices. In Hindi, the word basmati literally means "queen of fragrance." When basmati rice is cooked, it elongates, and its length increases 30% more than other rices. It is often cooked with whole spices and nuts to create pilafs and biryanis.

  Jasmine, or Thai, fragrant rice is typically consumed by Southeast Asians, and is classified as long grain, but exhibits some of the properties of medium-grain rice. Upon cooking, it becomes moist and somewhat sticky, like medium-grain rice, and turns from an off-white to a true white color. It is aromatic and has a slightly sweet flavor. It remains soft at refrigeration temperatures, unlike other types of rice, which harden after cooling.

  Most Chinese eat medium-grain japonica rice, which clumps as it cools. Southeast Asians also use black japonica (with bran intact), which is more glutinous, to provide a nutty flavor to desserts and other sweet dishes.

  Short-grain rices, such as glutinous, sweet, Japanese, sushi or Thai sticky rice, have a chalky white appearance and a soft, sticky texture when cooked. When cooked, the kernels become opaque, plump up, lose their shape and become sticky. This type of rice is also used as a stuffing, to make sushi and sweet desserts, or is ground into flour for rice noodles. Thais use it for desserts, while Malaysians wrap it in banana leaves, then steam and serve it as a side dish alongside hot items such as sambals or rendangs. Japanese, Koreans and Chinese prefer this stickier type of rice, while South Asians prefer the long-grain basmati rice.

  Onions, salt fish, tomatoes, curry blends, cilantro, chile peppers, turmeric, ginger and soy sauce are combined with rice to create numerous flavored rices, such as nasi lemak, nasi kuning (yellow rice), nasi goreng (fried rice), nasi kandar, lemon rice, pilaf, biryani or tomato rice. These dishes are eaten in Southeast Asia for breakfast, lunch and dinner, and on festive occasions.

  Noodles signify longevity and friendship in Asia. Called fan in Mandarin, mee in Malaysian and guey teow in Thai, noodles are made from a variety of ingredients. They come in a wide assortment of colors, thicknesses and shapes, and in fresh and dried forms. They are the "fast food" of East Asia and Southeast Asia, and are prepared with seasoned meat, chicken, seafood or vegetables, with crunchy garnishes and side condiments. Noodles are prepared in many delicious ways, including stir-fried, stewed, curried, and in soups or pungent sauces. Noodles are also eaten as bowl meals for lunch and dinner or as snacks.

  Chinese, Vietnamese and other Southeast Asian-style noodles are made mainly from rice flour, wheat flour, mung-bean flour and egg, or any combination of these. Many Japanese noodles such as udon, somen and soba are made from buckwheat, wheat or yam flour. Udon is made from wheat flour and is added to fish-based broths along with mirin, tofu, wakame and vegetables. Somen, made from refined wheat flour, is white and soft and is served cold with prawns and mushrooms. Soba is made from buckwheat flour, and is put into fish or chicken-based broths with lemon juice. Yam noodles, which have a gelatinous consistency, are generally used in sukiyaki.

  Legumes are used by many Asian ethnic groups in many ways. Dals, commonly used in Indian cuisines, are fried, roasted or boiled with spices and herbs for fermented breads, soups, chutneys, snacks, purees and sweets. Val dal, or butter bean, has a meaty taste and is braised for vegetable dishes in northern India. Channa dal, or chickpea, is used raw in chutneys, roasted whole for spicy snacks, ground for sweets, or is used whole with vegetables. Urad dal is popular in southern India, where it is fermented with rice and mixed spices and curry leaves to make dosai, steamed idli and snacks such as vadai or pappadum. Toovar dal, which exhibits a thick and more gelatinous consistency, is combined with channa dal, spices and chiles for sambar. Kabuli channa, a smaller variety of chickpea, is popular in the Punjab region, and is braised for use in tangy, spicy cumin- and coriander-based sauces.

  Soybeans are ubiquitous in Asian foods. Tofu, soy milk, fermented bean pastes, tempeh, soy sauce and soy flour are an integral part of East Asian cooking. Whole soybeans are toasted and seasoned as snacks. Tofu is used in Cantonese stir-fries, and is deep-fried and eaten as snacks; pureed and seasoned for use as a meat substitute; or sliced and sautéed as a crunchy topping for vegetables.

  Chinese, Koreans and Japanese have developed their own unique processes for fermenting soybeans to achieve end products with different flavors and colors. They are a major ingredient in Szechwan sauces, marinades, and hoisin and oyster sauces, as well as Southeast Asian soups, sambals and stir-fries.

  Bean pastes have sharp, salty, sweet or hot tastes with smooth or chunky textures, depending on the ingredients added, such as chile peppers, sesame, peanut or garlic. Examples are misos from Japan, tempeh from Indonesia, taucheo from Malaysia, twoenjang from Korea and the pungent bean pastes known as jiangs from China. Misos are commonly used in Japanese and Korean soups, sautéed dishes and marinades. They are sweet, semisweet or salty, and dark or light, depending on the fermentation time, amount of salt or the type of grains added. Yellow jiang, which is slightly sweet and pungent, is used as a flavoring for stir-fries in Beijing, while the black, salted and pungent jiang with garlic is used to flavor seafood and pork dishes from Shanghai.

  In Southeast Asia, soybean products are used wherever there's been Chinese or Japanese influences. Taucheo is used prominently in stir-fry dishes, while tempeh, which is made from fermented soybeans with rice and coconut, is used as a main course to replace meat, chicken or fish in Indonesia.

  Fermenting soybeans also creates many types of soy sauce that are salty, sharp, sweet, mushroomy, garlicky and thin, thick, light or dark, depending on regional preferences. Soy sauce is called shoyu in Japan, jiangyou in China, kecap in Indonesia and Malaysia, and tayo in the Philippines. Soy sauce flavors the vegetables of the strict vegetarian Buddhists of China and Thailand, who do not use fish sauce, garlic or shallots.

  Peanuts are commonly used in Southeast Asian dishes that feature spicy peanut sauces for satays, dips and spreads.

  Breads. Wheat is a staple grain in North India and North China. In North India, wheat is made into breads such as naan, chappati or pooris, and in North China into noodles, pancakes, dumplings, snacks and desserts.

  Breads soak up sauces, scoop up food, or form a base on which to spread ghee (clarified butter), sambals or curried pastes. South Asians enjoy a variety of flat breads that are fermented, baked or fried, such as chappati, a traditional unleavened flat whole-wheat bread, and idli, a fermented rice-and-lentil bread. Thin sour dosais from South India; soft, thicker naans from North India; fluffy roti canais of Malaysia; and light, airy pooris of Gujerat are eaten with ghee or side dishes of lentil stew, spicy lamb curry or coconut-mint chutneys.

  Breads are also made from millet, eaten by North Indians, North Chinese, Tibetans and Nepalese. Sorghum is also a popular grain that is made into dumplings, porridge, misos and fermented beverages.

  Vegetables are generally stir-fried, steamed, braised or curried to create textures and flavors in Asian meals. Commonly consumed vegetables include leafy greens (spinach, bok choy, kai lan), radishes, lotus root, yams, cassava, beans, bamboo shoots, seaweeds, okra and cabbages. East Asians steam or stir-fry lotus root, eating it as a side dish or adding it to soups, curries and stews to provide texture.

  In East Asia, pickled vegetables, such as radish, cabbage or spinach, accompany sushis or rice, or are grated and added to dipping sauces or added as toppings over noodles or soups. Boiled bamboo shoots add a chewiness to soups and stir-fries of Chinese-style dishes and Thai curries.

  Tubers such as yams, cassava, burdock root, lotus root and taro are boiled, fried or stir-fried. Lotus root, called renkon in Japanese, is a starchy vegetable that is soaked in vinegared water and used in marinated salads and simmered dishes. Seaweeds commonly used in East Asian cuisines include wakame, kombu and nori. Wakame is dried for use in soups, salads and in simmered dishes. Nori is roasted and used to roll glutinous rice for sushi and rice balls, or is added as a garnish. Kombu, which is high in glutamic acid, is ground with bonito flakes for dashi, which is added to soups and one-pot meals called nabe.

  In East and Southeast Asia, many varieties of mushrooms, including shiitake, oyster, enoki, shimeji, matsutake and cloud ear are commonly added to soups, stews and stir-fries. Flavorful, dried shiitake is grilled for use in soups and stir-fries. Cloud ear has a chewy, crunchy texture that absorbs other flavors well. Shimeji adds aroma to soups and rice dishes.

  Fruits are an important part of the Asian diet, adding variety to savory dishes, desserts and beverages. Tropical and semi-tropical fruits, such as mangos, lychees, durians, pumellos, tangerines, jujubes, jackfruit, carambola, mangosteens, longgan, langsat and rambutans, combine well with brown sugar, coconut milk, rice, chiles, spices and fish pastes. When unripe or dried, fruits such as mango, carambola, lychee or papaya are pickled to add flavor to savory foods.

  In Thailand and Vietnam, green papaya provides crunchiness to salads, soups and stews. Mango is widely eaten in Asia as a snack or after meals. In India and Southeast Asia, green mango provides sour, fruity notes to curries and chutneys. Jujube is a small wrinkled fruit that adds a sweet, tart flavor to stir-fries and wontons of Cantonese-style cooking. Lychees and longgans are used fresh or dried, and are popular in China and Southeast Asia. Lychees are added to stir-fries, sweet-and-sour dishes, marinades and beverages of southern China and Southeast Asia. Durians have a spiny rind and an aromatic, creamy custard-like pulp. Their strong garlicky, sulfury, cheesy and oniony aroma repels many westerners, but the fruit is loved by Southeast Asians. Pummelo is a large citrus fruit with flesh similar to that of grapefruit, but not as sour or bitter.

  Coconut milk and desiccated coconut are important flavorings in South Indian and Southeast Asian cuisines. They mellow out the fiery curries and sambals, enhance desserts, and are used as a topping for vegetables. Tamarind has a fruity, sweet-and-sour taste, and is used in sweetened drinks, curries, stews, or soups of South India and Southeast Asia.

  Spices and spice blends give Asian foods their strong flavors and heat profiles. Spices in Asian cuisines create hot, sweet, sour, savory and aromatic sensations all in one meal.

  Ginger, cumin, cassia, coriander, star anise, galangal, chile peppers, coriander leaf, basil, spearmint, turmeric, clove and garlic are commonly used in Asian cooking. A variety of fresh, leafy spices flavor and garnish foods and local drinks, including mint leaf, cilantro, basil leaf, lemongrass and scallions. Seasonings such as hoisin, curry, sweet-and-sour and panchphoron create magic with fish, steamed chicken, stews, soups and sauces.

  Certain spices, such as ginger, garlic or coriander leaf, have a "crossover" appeal among different Asian ethnic groups. However, with other spices, such as galangal, turmeric or kari leaf, regional preferences exist.

  Asians have mastered the art of preparing spices. They come in dry-roasted, toasted-in-oil and braised forms, all of which enhance the finished product's flavor. These processes remove bitter notes, intensify flavors, or add fragrant aromas. Different preparation techniques suit specific applications and create a multitude of flavors and colors in Asian cuisines.

  Many Asian spices are pickled when fresh, such as ginger, shiso leaf, chile peppers, wasabi and mints, and these flavor many East Asian dishes. Young ginger is pink or peach in color, and is pickled and served with sushi or grated and served with noodles or tempura.

  Seasonings are a must for flavoring foods in Asia, and there are endless variations for use with fish, chicken, beef and vegetables. Curry powders; garam masalas; sweet-and-sour, hoisin and teriyaki sauces; and kimchee contain many different spices, and are typical of specific Asian cuisines.

  Curry blends are available in powder and paste form, in flavors ranging from mild to hot. They can also come with added green mangoes, hot peppers, vinegar, soy sauce, fermented shrimp paste, lemongrass, vegetables or coconut, depending on regional preferences.

  Asians have a passion for chile peppers and enjoy them fresh, cooked, pureed, dried or pickled. Traditionally they're used in cooked foods or as table condiments to add zest to a meal. They balance well with sweet, savory, sour and "cold" flavor profiles. Popular hot peppers in Asia include cayennes, New Mexican types and bird peppers.

  Hot sauce to an Asian is like ketchup to a North American or salsa to a Mexican. Every region has its own hot sauce or condiment, whether fresh, pickled or cooked. Southeast Asia is noted for its pungent, fruity, sweet, sour and hot sauces. There are a variety of hot sauces - sambal olek, chile garlic, siracha, sambal trassi, nuoc cham - that contain vinegar, tomato, brown sugar, shallots, tamarind, coconut milk, garlic, lemongrass, turmeric or black pepper.

  Seafood and fish-based seasonings. Seafood plays an integral part in Asian diet, not only as a source of protein, but as a flavoring to sauces, soups, stews or vegetables. Varieties of fish used include anchovy, carp, yellowtail, flounder, sea bass, red snapper, mackerel, tile fish, whitebait, sardine, tuna, bonito, and puffer, along with other seafoods such as squid, shrimp, crab, clam, snails, scallops, octopus and lobster. In Asia, they are eaten raw, dried, pickled, salted, fermented, sauced, fried, grilled and pureed.

  Tiny shrimp and smaller fish are dried and fermented to flavor various Asian dishes. Fish sauces such as nam pla, nuoc mam, Bombay duck, patis, belacan (shrimp paste), mam ruoc, trassi and bagoong enhance and round off many sauces and condiments from Southeast Asia and India.

  Meat. Pork is a popular meat in China, whether fried, stewed, baked or processed into sweet sausages. Minced-pork dishes, sautéed with chiles, tomato, lime juice and onions, are popular in northern Thailand, Cambodia and Laos. Barbecued, grilled and pickled beef is popular in Japan and Korea, and in other parts of Asia where Chinese and Muslim influences predominate. Lamb and mutton are the favorite meats in the Islamic regions, where eating pork is forbidden. Chicken is a popular delicacy in most of Asia, and quails, pigeons, goose and duck are also commonly eaten.

  Dairy products. Indian foods make use of dairy products such as yogurt, cheese, buttermilk and ghee. Ghee is used as a cooking oil and for flavoring, especially in vegetarian cuisines. Fresh cheeses are added to vegetable curries or desserts, and are often mixed with sugar, milk, cardamom, fruits and spinach for savory applications and desserts.

  In North India, yogurt and buttermilk are consumed as beverages. Yogurt also provides consistency and flavor to Indian curries and tandoori marinades, and is used in salads with cucumbers, onions and tomatoes.

  Other flavorings. In Asia, vinegars, wines and sugars are commonly used to balance other flavors in a recipe. Vinegars and wines made from white rice or brown rice are common in East Asian and Southeast Asian cooking. Rice vinegar has a milder and sweeter flavor than vinegars made from fruits or wine. Brown-rice vinegar, used in east Asian foods, has a woody taste and sweet aroma, with a dark-brown color like that of balsamic vinegar.

  Mirin is a sweetened rice wine used in Japanese cuisines. Sake, a fermented alcoholic beverage commonly consumed in Japan, is used to tenderize meats and to enhance sauces and soups. It's also becoming more popular in the United States.

  Sugars obtained from palm or coconut trees flavor many dishes and desserts in Southeast Asia. Palm sugar, or gula melaka, is a dark-brown sugar used abundantly in Thai, Indonesian and Malaysian curries, chile condiments and desserts.

  Wrapper leaves, such as pandan, lotus and banana, are used in Southeast and South Asia to wrap rice, meats, fish or spice pastes before barbecuing, steaming, grilling or baking. They give interesting flavors and colors to products, and many U.S. restaurants have adopted their use to create authentic Asian touches or to simply to provide an exotic appeal.

Technological barriers

  Cost can be an issue when creating Asian foods. Not all authentic ingredients are currently available in processed form, and they can be expensive if not available in large volumes. Also, a consistent and reliable source for newer Asian ingredients might not be available. Food designers might have to substitute some of these ingredients with what is available, which can change the taste.

  Also, consumers want convenient foods that taste like they've been freshly made. Packaging and processing methods become important tools in retaining the distinct textures of Asian foods. Beans, vegetables, noodles and rice dishes that come in quick-cook forms need to retain their original tastes and textures. When rehydrated, dehydrated vegetables tend to lose their crispiness and fresh flavor, and when thawed, most frozen vegetables lose their firm texture. The right moisture level in the precooked products is important for an acceptable finished texture when cooked. Proper holding temperatures and humidity during storage, as well as on steam tables, are crucial to rice and noodle textures.

  Variety, exciting new tastes and nutritious qualities are the driving forces in America's love affair with Asian foods and ingredients. In ever-growing numbers, Americans will want the spicy, sharp, clean flavors, and firm, crispy textures offered by Asian ingredients and cooking techniques.

  As food creators, we have to understand the factors fueling the trend for Asian flavors and ingredients. We need to familiarize ourselves with many of the new Asian ingredients, along with their properties and how they are used. Only then can we formulate the desired Asian or Asian-influenced products for the North American palate.

  Susheela Uhl is president of Horizons, a Mamaroneck, NY-based food-consulting firm. She develops products (ethnic and fusion), provides information on spices and other flavorings, and gives presentations exploring culinary trends and the factors contributing to their emergence.

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